誰かがPTLOS演習4.1を解決しましたか？

これは、2003年のエドウィンジェインズによる確率理論：科学の論理で与えられた演習です。ここには部分的な解決策があります。私はより一般的な部分的な解決策を考え出しましたが、他の誰かがそれを解決したかどうか疑問に思っていました。答えを投稿する前に少し待って、他の人に試してもらいます。

さて、H iで示される相互排他的で網羅的な$n$仮説があると仮定します。$H_i \;\;(i=1,\dots,n)$。さらに、 D jで示される$m$データセットがあるとします$D_j \;\;(j=1,\dots,m)$。i番目の仮説の尤度比は次の式で与えられます。

$$LR(H_{i})=\frac{P(D_{1}D_{2}\dots,D_{m}|H_{i})}{P(D_{1}D_{2}\dots,D_{m}|\overline{H}_{i})}$$

これらは条件付き確率であることに注意してください。i番目の仮説が与えられた場合$H_{i}$、$m$データセットが独立していると仮定します。

$$P(D_{1}D_{2}\dots,D_{m}|H_{i})=\prod_{j=1}^{m}P(D_{j}|H_{i}) \;\;\;\; (i=1,\dots,n)\;\;\;\text{Condition 1}$$

ここで、分母もこの状況を考慮に入れれば非常に便利になります。

$$P(D_{1}D_{2}\dots,D_{m}|\overline{H}_{i})=\prod_{j=1}^{m}P(D_{j}|\overline{H}_{i}) \;\;\;\; (i=1,\dots,n)\;\;\;\text{Condition 2}$$

この場合、尤度比は各データセットのより小さい係数の積に分割されるため、次のようになります。

$$LR(H_i)=\prod_{j=1}^{m}\frac{P(D_{j}|H_{i})}{P(D_{j}|\overline{H}_{i})}$$

したがって、この場合、各データセットのだろう「のための投票$H_i$」または「反対票$H_i$」独立して、他のデータセットの。

演習では、$n>2$（2つ以上の仮説）の場合、この因数分解が発生するような非自明な方法がないことを証明します。つまり、条件1と条件2が成立すると仮定すると、最大で1つの要因 1と異なっているので、1つだけのデータセットは、尤度比に寄与する。

$$\frac{P(D_{1}|H_{i})}{P(D_{1}|\overline{H}_{i})}\frac{P(D_{2}|H_{i})}{P(D_{2}|\overline{H}_{i})}\dots\frac{P(D_{m}|H_{i})}{P(D_{m}|\overline{H}_{i})}$$

個人的には、この結果は非常に魅力的でした。なぜなら、複数の仮説検定は一連のバイナリ仮説検定に他ならないことを基本的に示しているからです。

The reason we accepted eq. 4.28 (in the book, your condition 1) was that we assumed the probability of the data given a certain hypothesis $H_a$ and background information $X$ is independent, in other words for any $D_i$ and $D_j$ with $i\neq{j}$:

$$\begin{equation}P(D_i|D_jH_aX)=P(D_i|H_aX)\quad\quad{\rm (1)}\end{equation}$$ Nonextensibility beyond the binary case can therefore be discussed like this: If we assume eq.1 to be true, is eq.2 also true?

$$\begin{equation}P(D_i|D_j\overline{H_a}X)\stackrel{?}{=}P(D_i|\overline{H_a}X)\quad\quad{\rm (2)}\end{equation}$$ First lets look at the left side of eq.2, using the multiplication rule:

$$\begin{equation}P(D_i|D_j\overline{H_a}X)=\frac{P(D_iD_j\overline{H_a}|X)}{P(D_j\overline{H_a}|X)}\quad\quad{\rm (3)}\end{equation}$$ $n$$\{H_1\dots{H_n}\}$ $$\overline{H_a}=\sum_{b\neq{a}}H_b$$ $$P(D_i|D_j\overline{H_a}X)=\frac{\sum_{b\neq{a}}P(D_i|D_jH_bX)P(D_jH_b|X)}{\sum_{b\neq{a}}P(D_jH_b|X)}=\frac{\sum_{b\neq{a}}P(D_i|H_bX)P(D_jH_b|X)}{\sum_{b\neq{a}}P(D_jH_b|X)}$$ $b\neq{a}$$P(D_jH_b|X$), cancel out and eq.2 is proved correct, since $H_b=\overline{H_a}$. Therefore equation 4.29 can be derived from equation 4.28 in the book. But when we have more than two hypotheses, this doesn't happen, for example, if we have three hypotheses: $\{H_1, H_2, H_3\}$, the equation above becomes: $$P(D_i|D_j\overline{H_1}X)=\frac{P(D_i|H_2X)P(D_jH_2|X)+P(D_i|H_3X)P(D_jH_3|X)}{P(D_jH_2|X)+P(D_jH_3|X)}$$ In other words: $$P(D_i|D_j\overline{H_1}X)=\frac{P(D_i|H_2X)}{1+\frac{P(D_jH_3|X)}{P(D_jH_2|X)}}+\frac{P(D_i|H_3X)}{1+\frac{P(D_jH_2|X)}{P(D_jH_3|X)}}$$ The only way this equation can yield eq.2 is that both denominators equal 1, i.e. both fractions in the denominators must equal zero. But that is impossible.

Okay, so rather than go and re-derive Saunder's equation (5), I will just state it here. Condition 1 and 2 imply the following equality:

$$\prod_{j=1}^{m}\left(\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}d_{jk}\right)=\left(\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}\right)^{m-1}\left(\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}\prod_{j=1}^{m}d_{jk}\right)$$ where $$d_{jk}=P(D_{j}|H_{k},I)\;\;\;\;h_{k}=P(H_{k}|I)$$

Now we can specialise to the case $m=2$ (two data sets) by taking $D_{1}^{(1)}\equiv D_{1}$ and relabeling $D_{2}^{(1)}\equiv D_{2}D_{3}\dots D_{m}$. Note that these two data sets still satisfy conditions 1 and 2, so the result above applies to them as well. Now expanding in the case $m=2$ we get:

$$\left(\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}d_{1k}\right)\left(\sum_{l\neq i}h_{l}d_{2l}\right)=\left(\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}\right)\left(\sum_{l\neq i}h_{l}d_{1l}d_{2l}\right)$$

$$\rightarrow\sum_{k\neq i}\sum_{l\neq i}h_{k}h_{l}d_{1k}d_{2l}=\sum_{k\neq i}\sum_{l\neq i}h_{k}h_{l}d_{1l}d_{2l}$$

$$\rightarrow\sum_{k\neq i}\sum_{l\neq i}h_{k}h_{l}d_{2l}(d_{1k}-d_{1l})=0\;\;\;\;\;\;\; (i=1,\dots,n)$$

The term $(d_{1a}-d_{1b})$ occurs twice in the above double summation, once when $k=a$ and $l=b$, and once again when $k=b$ and $l=a$. This will occur as long as $a,b\neq i$. The coefficient of each term is given by $d_{2b}$ and $-d_{2a}$. Now because there are $i$ of these equations, we can actually remove $i$ from these equations. To illustrate, take $i=1$, now this means we have all conditions except where $a=1,b=2$ and $b=1,a=2$. Now take $i=3$, and we now can have these two conditions (note this assumes at least three hypothesis). So the equation can be re-written as:

$$\sum_{l>k}h_{k}h_{l}(d_{2l}-d_{2k})(d_{1k}-d_{1l})=0$$

Now each of the $h_i$ terms must be greater than zero, for otherwise we are dealing with $n_{1}<n$ hypothesis, and the answer can be reformulated in terms of $n_{1}$. So these can be removed from the above set of conditions:

$$\sum_{l>k}(d_{2l}-d_{2k})(d_{1k}-d_{1l})=0$$

Thus, there are $\frac{n(n-1)}{2}$ conditions that must be satisfied, and each conditions implies one of two "sub-conditions": that $d_{jk}=d_{jl}$ for either $j=1$ or $j=2$ (but not necessarily both). Now we have a set of all of the unique pairs $(k,l)$ for $d_{jk}=d_{jl}$. If we were to take $n-1$ of these pairs for one of the $j$, then we would have all the numbers $1,\dots,n$ in the set, and $d_{j1}=d_{j2}=\dots=d_{j,n-1}=d_{j,n}$. This is because the first pair has $2$ elements, and each additional pair brings at least one additional element to the set*

But note that because there are $\frac{n(n-1)}{2}$ conditions, we must choose at least the smallest integer greater than or equal to $\frac{1}{2}\times\frac{n(n-1)}{2}=\frac{n(n-1)}{4}$ for one of the $j=1$ or $j=2$. If $n>4$ then the number of terms chosen is greater than $n-1$. If $n=4$ or $n=3$ then we must choose exactly $n-1$ terms. This implies that $d_{j1}=d_{j2}=\dots=d_{j,n-1}=d_{j,n}$. Only with two hypothesis ($n=2$) is where this does not occur. But from the last equation in Saunder's article this equality condition implies:

$$P(D_{j}|\overline{H}_{i})=\frac{\sum_{k\neq i}d_{jk}h_{k}}{\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}}=d_{ji}\frac{\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}}{\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}}=d_{ji}=P(D_{j}|H_{i})$$

Thus, in the likelihood ratio we have:

$$\frac{P(D_{1}^{(1)}|H_{i})}{P(D_{1}^{(1)}|\overline{H}_{i})}=\frac{P(D_{1}|H_{i})}{P(D_{1}|\overline{H}_{i})}=1 \text{ OR} \frac{P(D_{2}^{(1)}|H_{i})}{P(D_{2}^{(1)}|\overline{H}_{i})}=\frac{P(D_{2}D_{3}\dots,D_{m}|H_{i})}{P(D_{2}D_{3}\dots,D_{m}|\overline{H}_{i})}=1$$

To complete the proof, note that if the second condition holds, the result is already proved, and only one ratio can be different from 1. If the first condition holds, then we can repeat the above analysis by relabeling $D_{1}^{(2)}\equiv D_{2}$ and $D_{2}^{(2)}\equiv D_{3}\dots,D_{m}$. Then we would have $D_{1},D_{2}$ not contributing, or $D_{2}$ being the only contributor. We would then have a third relabeling when $D_{1}D_{2}$ not contributing holds, and so on. Thus, only one data set can contribute to the likelihood ratio when condition 1 and condition 2 hold, and there are more than two hypothesis.

*NOTE: An additional pair might bring no new terms, but this would be offset by a pair which brought 2 new terms. e.g. take $d_{j1}=d_{j2}$ as first[+2], $d_{j1}=d_{j3}$ [+1] and $d_{j2}=d_{j3}$ [+0], but next term must have $d_{jk}=d_{jl}$ for both $k,l\notin (1,2,3)$. This will add two terms [+2]. If $n=4$ then we don't need to choose any more, but for the "other" $j$ we must choose the 3 pairs which are not $(1,2),(2,3),(1,3)$. These are $(1,4),(2,4),(3,4)$ and thus the equality holds, because all numbers $(1,2,3,4)$ are in the set.

For the record, here is a somewhat more extensive proof. It also contains some background information. Maybe this is helpful for others studying the topic.

The main idea of the proof is to show that Jaynes' conditions 1 and 2 imply that

$$P(D_{m_k}|H_iX)=P(D_{m_k}|X),$$ for all but one data set $m_k=1,\ldots,m$. It then shows that for all these data sets, we also have $$P(D_{m_k}|\overline H_iX)=P(D_{m_k}|X).$$ Thus we have for all but one data set, $$\frac{P(D_{m_k}|H_iX)}{P(D_{m_k}|\overline H_iX)} = \frac{P(D_{m_k}|X)}{P(D_{m_k}|X)} = 1.$$ The reason that I wanted to include the proof here is that some of the steps involved are not at all obvious, and one needs to take care not to use anything else than conditions 1 and 2 and the product rule (as many of the other proofs implicitly do). The link above includes all these steps in detail. It is on my Google Drive and I will make sure it stays accessible.